JAINISM

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      Jainism

      Click to view the Jain Aum

      Main Jain prayer

      Navakar Mantra

      Timeline

      Jain great vows

      Ahimsa · Asteya

      Brahmacharya · Satya

      Nirvana · Aparigraha

      Anekantavada

      Key concepts

      Kevala Jñāna · Cosmology

      Samsara · Karma

      Dharma · Mokṣa · Reincarnation

      Swadhyay

      Major figures

      The 24 Tirthankaras

      Lord Rishabh to Mahavira

      Acharyas · Ganadhars

      Siddhasen Divakar · Haribhadra

      Practices and attainment

      Four Stages of Enlightenment

      Paramis · Meditation

      Jainism by region

      India · Western

      Sects of Jainism

      Svetambara · Digambara

      Terapanthi · Early schools

      Sthanakvasi · Bisapantha

      Deravasi

      Texts

      Kalpasutra

      Agama · Tattvartha Sutra

      Sanmatti Prakaran

      List of topics

      Portal: Jainism

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"Jain" and "Jaina" redirect here. For other uses, see Jain (disambiguation) and

Jaina (disambiguation).

Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म) is an

ancient religion of India.

Jainism is a small but influential religious minority with as many as 10 million

followers in modern India,[1] and successful growing immigrant communities in

the United States, Western Europe, the Far East, Australia and elsewhere.[2]

Though the Jains form only 0.42% of the population of India, their contribution

to the exchequer by way of income tax is an astounding 24% of the total tax

collected.[3] Jains sustain the ancient Shraman (श्रमण) or ascetic religion and

have significantly influenced other religious, ethical, political and economic

spheres in India.

Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship and have the highest degree of

literacy in India.[4] Jain libraries are India's oldest.[5]

      Contents [hide]

        1 Principles & Beliefs

        2 Main points

        3 History

        4 Geographical spread and influence

        5 Digambara and Svetambara traditions

        6 Beliefs

          6.1 Tirthankaras

          6.2 Doctrines

          6.3 Creation and cosmology

        7 Jain philosophy

          7.1 Karma theory

        8 Customs and practices

          8.1 Jain fasting

          8.2 Jain worship and rituals

        9 Jain symbolism

        10 Jain contributions to Indian culture

        11 Jain literature

        12 Jain monks and nuns (Sadhu or Muni Maharaj)

        13 Holidays

        14 Jainism and other religions

        15 Languages used in Jain literature

        16 Constitutional status of Jainism in India

        17 See also

        18 Notes

        19 External links

        20 Further reading

[edit] Principles & Beliefs

"Samyak darshan gyan charitrani moksha margah" is the fundamental principle of

Jainism. It means: "true perception, true/right knowledge and true/right

conduct" is the path to attain liberation (moksha) of the samsara (the universal

law of births and deaths). Moksha is attained by getting liberated from all

karma. Those who have attained moksha are called siddha (liberated souls) and

those who are attached to the world through their karma are called samsarin

(mundane souls). Every mundane soul has to follow the path as described by the

Jinas (Tirthankaras) to attain moksha.

The universe has two components / elements ("Tatva"): "Jīva" and "Ajīva". "Jiva"

are of two kinds: liberated (siddha) and mundane (samasarin).The siddha possess

ananta darshan (perception), gyan (knowledge), virya (power) and sukha (bliss).

The samsarin (worldly) soul takes various forms of life. All worldly relations

of one's Jiva with other Jiva & Ajiva are based on Karma. Human being, animal

and plant, deity, hell-being are the four forms of the samsari souls known as

modes paryaaya or births gati.

Jainism beliefs & practices are purely derived from the structure defined as

above. e.g. Non-violence can simply relate to minimizing new karmas to get

attached to the soul, every soul is considered worthy of respect as it has

potential to become Siddha (Param-atma - pure soul), materialistic things are

consumed as little as possible, meditation is practiced to get free from

thoughts - both shubha (good) or ashubha (bad) etc..

The belief that all living beings possess a soul, requires a great care and

awareness in going about one's business in the world. Jainism is a religion in

which all life is considered worthy of respect and it emphasizes this equality

of all life, advocating the protection of even the smallest creatures. This goes

as far as the life of microscopic organisms. A major characteristic of Jain

belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental

behaviours.[6]

A Jain is a follower of Jinas ("conquerors"),[7][8] specially gifted human

beings who have rediscovered the dharma, became fully liberated and taught the

spiritual path for the benefit of all living beings. Jains follow the teachings

of 24 special Jinas who are known as Tirthankaras ('ford-makers', those who have

discovered and shown the way to salvation). The 24th and most recent Tirthankar

is Shri Mahavir, who lived from 599 to 527 BCE according to traditional history.

The 23rd Tirthankar, Shri Parsvanatha, is now recognised as a historical person,

who lived during 872 to 772 BC.[9][10]

Jainism encourages spiritual development through reliance on and cultivating

one's own personal wisdom and self-control (व्रत, vrata). The goal is

realization of the soul's true nature.

Jaina tradition is unanimous in naming Rishabha (also known as Adhinath) as the

First Tirthankar of this descending (avasarpini) kalachakra (time cycle).[11]

The first Tirthankar, Rishabhdev/ Adhinath appeared prior to the Indus Valley

Civilization. The Jain Swastika symbol and naked statues resembling the Jain

monks amongst the remains of the Indus Valley Civilization, do substantiate

claims.

Jainism believes that the Universe and Dharma have no beginning and no ending.

However it goes through a process of cyclical change. Jains believe it is

approx. 8.4 million years old in its current cyclic period. Therefore there is

no concept of a creator of the universe within Jainism.

Jainism differs from other religions in its concept of God. According to its

belief, there is no overarching supreme divine creator, owner, preserver or

destroyer. Every living soul is potentially divine and the Siddhas who have

completely eliminated their karmic bonding, thereby ending their cycle of birth

and death, have attained God-consciousness.

The main Jain prayer (Namokar Mantra) therefore salutes the five special

categories of souls that have attained God-consciousness or are on their way to

achieving it, so as to emulate and follow their path to salvation.

[edit] Main points

  Every living being has a soul[10]

  Every soul is potentially divine with innate infinite knowledge, infinite

  perception, infinite power, and infinite bliss.

  Therefore, regard every living being as yourself and harm no one. In other

  words, have benevolence for all living beings.

  Every soul is born as a celestial, human, sub-human or hellish being according

  to its own karmas.

  Every soul is the architect of its own life, here or hereafter.

  When a soul is freed from karmas, it becomes god-consciousness (infinite

  knowledge, infinite perception, infinite power, and infinite bliss) and

  liberated.

  Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct (triple gems of Jainism) provide

  the way to this realisation.[12]

  Non-violence (Ahimsa) is the basis of right View, the condition of right

  Knowledge and the kernel of right Conduct.

  Control your senses.

  Limit your possessions and lead a pure life that is useful to yourself and

  others. Owning an object by itself is not possessiveness; however attachment

  to it is possessiveness.[13]

  Enjoy the company of the holy and better qualified, be merciful to those

  afflicted and tolerate the perversely inclined.[14]

  Four things are difficult to attain by a soul: human birth, knowledge of the

  law, faith in it and the pursuit of the right path.

  It is important not to waste human life in evil ways. Instead, strive to rise

  on the ladder of spiritual evolution.

[edit] History

       Jainism timeline

      Pre-history

      Prior to 10th Century BCEThe first 22 Tīrthaṇkara — Ṛṣabha to Neminātha.

      History

      The age of Tīrthaṇkaras

      2000–1500 BCETerracotta seals excavated at site suggest links of Jainism

      with Indus Valley civilization. Mention of Jain Tīrthaṇkaras in Vedas

      indicates pre-historic origins of Jainism.

      877–777 BCEThe period of Pārśva, the 23rd Tīrthaṇkaras

      599–527 BCEThe age of Māhavīra, the 24th Tīrthaṇkaras of Jainism

      527 BCENirvāṇa of Māhavīra, Kevala Jñāna of his chief disciple Ganadhara

      Gautama and origin of Divāli.

      The age of Kevalins

      523 BCEAs per Jain cosmology, the end of the 4th āra Duḥṣama-suṣamā and

      start of 5th āra Duḥṣama (sorrow and misery). The age of sorrow is said to

      have started three years and eight and a half months after the nirvana of

      Māhavīra.

      527–463 BCEThe Reign of the Kevalins — Gautama, Sudharma and Jambusvami

      The age of Sruta-kevali's

      463–367 BCEThe reign of the Sruta-kevali's.

        First Council held at Pataliputra for compilation of Jain Agamas.

        Gradual loss of Purvas.

        Start of Schism in Jainism in two main sects — Śvetāmbara and Digambara.

      320–298 BCEThe reign of Chandragupta Maurya. became a Jain ascetic at the

      end of his reign.

      2nd century BCEKhāravela, reign of King of Kalinga (Orissa).

      Reinstallation of Jina image taken by Nanda Kings of Magadha as per

      Hathigumpha inscription

      The Agamic Age

      156 CERecitation of Ṣaṭkhaṇdāgama and Kaṣāyapahuda by Ācārya Dharasena to

      ĀcāryaPuṣpadanta and Ācārya Bhūtabali in Candragumpha in Mount Girnar.

      (683 years after Māhavīra)

      2nd Century CEKundakunda, founder of Mūla sangha– the main Digambara

      ascetic lineage.

      2nd – 3rd Century CECompilation of Tattvārthasūtra by Umāsvāti (Umāsvāmi).

      This was the first major Jain work in Sanskrit.

      300 CETwo simultaneous councils for compilation of Āgamas, 827 years after

      Māhavīra – Mathura Council headed by Ācārya Skandila and The First Valabhi

      Council headed by Ācārya Nāgārjuna.

      453 or 466 CESecond Valabhi Council headed by Devarddhi Ganin, that is,

      980 or 993 AV – Final redaction and compilation of Śvetāmbara Canons.

      The Age of Logic

      4th – 16th Century CE, also known as the age of logic, was the period of

      development of Jain logic, Philosophy and Yoga. Various original texts,

      commentaries and expositions were written. The main Ācāryas were –

      Samantabhadra, Siddhasena Divākara, Akalanka, Haribhadra, Mānikyanandi,

      Vidyānandi, Prabhācandra, Hemacandra, Yaśovijaya. For a detailed

      chronological list of Jain philosopher-monks see Jain Philosophers. It was

      also a period of formation of modern Jain communities and extensive Jain

      contribution to Sanskrit, Tamil, Kannada, Hindi and Gujarati Literature.

      981 CEConstruction of Gommaṭeśvara – Statue of Lord Bāhubalī (18 meters-

      57 feet, worlds tallest monolithic free standing structure), at Sravana

      Belagola, Karnataka by Cāmuṇḍarāya, the General-in-chief and Prime

      Minister of the Gaṅga kings of Mysore.

      10th Century CEEmergence of Śvetāmbara Gacchas out of which, most

      prominent are – Tapā Gachha, and Kharatara Gaccha

      11th–12th Century CEConstruction of Delwara temples at Mount Ābu built by

      the Jain ministers of the king of Gujarat, Vastupāla and Tejapāla

      13th Century CEEmergence of institution of Bhattāraka

      1474 CEEstablishment of non-image worshipping Śvetāmbara sect of

      Sthānakvasi established by a Jain layman, Lonka Shah.

      1506 CEEstablishment of Taranapantha Digambara sect

      1683 CEEstablishment of Digambara sect of Terapantha by a Śvetāmbara

      layman, Banarasidas

      1760 CESeparation of Ācārya Bhikṣu from Sthānakavasi and establishment of

      Śvetāmbara Terāpantha sect.

      1901 CEEstablishment of Kavi Pantha based on the teachings of Srimad

      Rājacandra (1867 – 1901)

      1934 CESeparation of Kānjisvāmi from Sthānakavasi and establishment of

      Digambara Kānjipantha

Parshvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankar, is the earliest Jain leader who can

be reliably dated.[9] According to scholars, he probably lived in the 9th

Century BCE.[15][16]

Kalinga (modern Orissa and Osiaji) was home to many Jains in the past. Rishabh,

the first Tirthankar, was revered and worshipped in the ancient city Pithunda.

This was destroyed by Mahapadma Nanda when he conquered Kalinga and brought the

statue of Rishabhanatha to his capital in Magadh. Rishabhanatha is revered as

the Kalinga Jina. Ashoka's invasion and his Buddhist policy also subjugated

Jains greatly in Kalinga. However, in the 1st century BCE Emperor Kharvela

conquered Magadha and brought Rishabhnath's statue back and installed it in

Udaygiri, near his capital, Shishupalgadh. The Khandagiri and Udaygiri caves

near Bhubaneswar are the only surviving stone Jain monuments in Orissa. Earlier

buildings were made of wood and were destroyed.

Deciphering of the Brahmi script, India's oldest script, believed to have been

created by the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha,[citation needed] by James

Prinsep in 1788 enabled the reading of ancient inscriptions in India and

established the antiquity of Jainism. Discovering Jain manuscripts, continues

and has added significantly to retracing Jain history. Jain archaeological

findings are often from Maurya, Sunga, Kishan, Gupta, Kalachuries, Rashtrakut,

Chalukya, Chandel and Rajput and later periods. Several western and Indian

scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. Western

historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan,

worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.

  Further information: Timeline of Jainism

[edit] Geographical spread and influence

Jain temple in RanakpurJainism has been a major cultural, philosophical, social

and political force since the dawn of civilization in Asia, and its ancient

influence has been noted in other religions, including Buddhism and Hinduism.

This pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar

possibly gave rise to Buddhism. The Buddhists have always maintained that during

the time of Buddha and Mahavira (who, according to the Pali canon were

contemporaries), Jainism was already an ancient, deeply entrenched faith and

culture there. (For connections between Buddhism and Jainism see Buddhism and

Jainism). Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and

religion has been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain rituals may be

observed in certain Jain sects. Certain Vedic Hindu Holy books beautifully

narrates about various figures whom are were adopted by Jains as Tirthankars

(e.g., Lord Rishabdev).[clarify]

For instance, the concept of puja is Jain. The Vedic Religion prescribed yajnas

and havanas for pleasing god. Puja is a specifically Jain concept, arising from

the Kannada words, "pu" (flower) and "ja" (offering).[17]

With 10 to 12 million followers,[18] Jainism is among the smallest of the major

world religions, but in India its influence is much more than these numbers

would suggest. Jains live throughout India; Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat

have the largest Jain population among Indian states. Karnataka, Bundelkhand and

Madhya Pradesh have relatively large Jain populations. There is a large

following in Punjab, especially in Ludhiana and Patiala, and there used to be

many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the

Partition of 1947, after which many fled to India. There are many Jain

communities in different parts of India and around the world. They may speak

local languages or follow different rituals but essentially follow the same

principles.

Outside India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and East Africa (Kenya,

Tanzania and Uganda) have large Jain communities. Jainism is presently a strong

faith in the United States and several Jain temples have been built there.

American Jainism accommodates all the sects. Smaller Jain communities exist in

Nepal, South Africa, Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, Fiji, and Suriname.

In Belgium the very successful Indian diamond community, almost all of whom are

Jain, are also establishing a temple to strengthen Jain values in and across

Western Europe.

[edit] Digambara and Svetambara traditions

It is generally believed[citation needed] that the Jain sangha divided into two

major sects, Digambar and Svetambar, about 200 years after Mahāvīra's nirvana.

Some historians[who?] believe there was no clear division until the 5th century.

The best available information indicates that the chief Jain monk, Acharya

Bhadrabahu, foresaw famine and led about 12,000 Digambar followers to southern

India. Twelve years later they returned to find the Svetambar sect, and in 453

the Valabhi council edited and compiled the traditional Svetambar scriptures.

The differences between the two sects are minor and relatively obscure. Digambar

Jain monks do not wear clothes because they believe clothes, like other

possessions, increase dependency and desire for material things, and desire for

anything ultimately leads to sorrow. Svetambar Jain monks, on the other hand,

wear white, seamless clothes for practical reasons, and believe there is nothing

in Jain scripture that condemns wearing clothes. Sadhvis (nuns) of both sects

wear white. In Sanskrit, ambar refers to a covering generally, or a garment in

particular. Dig, an older form of disha, refers to the cardinal directions.

Digambar therefore means "covered by the four directions", or "sky-clad". Svet

means white and Svetambars wear white garments.

Digambars believe that women cannot attain moksha in the same birth, while

Svetambars believe that women may attain liberation and that Mallinath, a

Tirthankar, was a woman. The difference is because Digambar asceticism requires

nudity. As nudity is impractical for women, it follows that without it they

cannot attain moksha.[19] This is based on the belief that women cannot reach

perfect purity (yathakhyata), "Their lack of clothes can, therefore, be a

hindrance to their leading a holy life". The earliest record of this belief is

contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of the Digambara mendicant Kundakunda (c.

second century A.D. ).[20]

Digambars believe that Mahavir was not married, whereas Svetambars believe

Mahavir was married and had a daughter. The two sects also differ on the origin

of Mata Trishala, Mahavira's mother.

Sthanakavasis and Digambars believe that only the first five lines are formally

part of the Namokara Mantra (the main Jain prayer), whereas Svetambaras believe

all nine form the mantra. Other differences are minor and not based on major

points of doctrine.

Diagramatic representation of schisms within Jainism along with the

timelines.Excavations at Mathura revealed many Jain statues from the Kushana

period. Tirthankaras, represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped

around the left arm are identified as Ardhaphalaka and mentioned in some texts.

The Yapaniya sect, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, follows

Digambara nudity, along with several Svetambara beliefs.

Svetambaras are further divided into sub-sects, such as Sthanakavasi, Terapanthi

and Deravasi. Some are murtipujak (revering statues) while non-Murtipujak Jains

refuse statues or images. Svetambar follow the 12 agam literature (voice of

omniscient).

Most simply call themselves Jains and follow general traditions rather than

specific sectarian practices. In 1974 a committee with representatives from

every sect compiled a new text called the Samana Suttam.

[edit] Beliefs

[edit] Tirthankaras

The statue of Gomateshwara of Digambar tradition in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka

is the tallest monolith of its kind in the worldLike other Indian religions,

knowledge of the truth (dharma) is considered to have declined and then revived

cyclically over the course of history. Those who rediscover dharma are called

Tirthankara. The literal meaning of Tirthankar is 'ford-builder'. Jains, like

Buddhists, compare the process of becoming a pure human being to crossing a

swift river - an endeavour requiring patience and care. A ford-builder is

someone who has themselves already crossed the river and can therefore guide

others. S/he is called a 'victor' (Skt: Jina) because she or he has achieved

liberation by their own efforts. Like Buddhism, the purpose of Jain dharma is

mental and physical purification to undo the negative effects of karma. The goal

of this process is liberation accompanied by a great natural inner peace.

Having purified their souls of karmic impurities, a tirthankar is considered

omniscient, a role model. They are referred to as god, such as through the use

of the word bhagavan, lord (e.g., Bhagavan Rishabha, Bhagavan Parshva, etc.).

They are not regarded as gods in the pantheistic or polytheistic sense, but

rather as examples of the spiritual qualities to which Jains are to strive.

There have been 24 Tirthankaras in what the Jains call the 'present age'.

History records the last two Tirthankaras: Parshvanath and Mahavira (the 23rd

and 24th).

Mahavira established the four-fold community (chaturvidhi sangha) of monks,

nuns, and male and female laypersons.

The 24 tirthankaras, in chronological order, are Adinath (or Rishabhnath),

Ajitanath, Sambhavanath, Abhinandananath, Sumatinath, Padmaprabh, Suparshvanath,

Chandraprabhu, Pushpadantanath (or Suvidhinath), Sheetalanath, Shreyansanath,

Vasupujya, Vimalanath, Anantanath, Dharmanath, Shantinath, Kunthunath, Aranath,

Mallinath, Munisuvratanath, Naminath, Neminath, Parshvanath and Mahavir (or

Vardhamana,Vir,Ativeer,Sanmati).

[edit] Doctrines

Pre-Kushana Ayagapatta from MathuraJains believe that every human is responsible

for his/her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jīva. Jains

believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being

liberated and attaining moksha. Tirthankaras are role models only because they

have attained moksha. Jains insist that we live, think and act respectfully and

honor the spiritual nature of all life. Jains view God as the unchanging traits

of the pure soul of each living being, described as Infinite Knowledge,

Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness (Ananta Jnāna, Ananta Darshana, Ananta

Cāritra and Ananta Sukha). Jains do not believe in an omnipotent supreme being,

creator or manager (kartā), but rather in an eternal universe governed by

natural laws.

Jains hold that this temporal world holds much misery and sorrow and hence to

attain lasting bliss one must transcend the cycle of transmigration. Otherwise,

one will remain eternally caught up in the never-ending cycle of transmigration.

The only way to break out of this cycle is to practice detachment through

rational perception, rational knowledge and rational conduct.

Jain scriptures were written over a long period of time, but the most cited is

the Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Reality written by the monk-scholar, Umasvati

(aka Umāsvāmi) almost 1800 years ago. The primary figures are Tirthankaras. The

two main sects called Digambar and Svetambar, both believe in ahimsa (or

ahinsā), asceticism, karma, sanskār, and jiva.

Differences between the two main sects are mainly conduct related. Doctrinally,

Jainism is uniform with great emphasis placed on rational perception, rational

knowledge and rational conduct. {"samyagdarśanajñānacāritrāṇimokṣamārgaḥ",

Tattvārthasūtra, 1.1}

Compassion for all life, human and non-human, is central to Jainism. Human life

is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment. To kill any

person, no matter their crime, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. It is the

only religion that requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions,

to be vegetarian.

History suggests that various strains of Hinduism became vegetarian due to

strong Jain influences.[21] Jains run animal shelters all over India. For

example, Delhi has a bird hospital run by Jains. Every city and town in

Bundelkhand has animal shelters run by Jains where all manner of animals are

sheltered, even though the shelter is generally known as a Gaushala ("sacred

cow").

Jainism's stance on nonviolence goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food

obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to

veganism, due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root

vegetables from their diets to preserve the lives of these plants.[22] Potatoes,

garlic and onions in particular are avoided by Jains.[23] Devout Jains do not

eat, drink, or travel after sunset, and prefer to drink water that is boiled and

then cooled to room temperature.[citation needed] Many Jains abstain from eating

green vegetables and root vegetables one day each week. The particular day,

determined by the lunar calendar is Ashtami (eighth day of the lunar month), New

Moon, the second Ashtami and the Full Moon night.

Anekantavada, a foundation of Jain philosophy, literally means "The Multiplicity

of Reality", or equivalently, "Non-one-endedness". Anekantavada has tools for

overcoming inherent biases in any one perspective on any topic or in reality in

general. Another tool is The Doctrine of Postulation, Syādvāda. Anekantavada is

defined as a multiplicity of viewpoints, for it stresses looking at things from

others' perspectives.

Jains are usually very welcoming and friendly toward other faiths and often help

with interfaith functions. Several non-Jain temples in India are administered by

Jains. A palpable presence in Indian culture, Jains have contributed to Indian

philosophy, art, architecture, science, and to Mohandas Gandhi's politics, which

led to the mainly non-violent movement for Indian independence.[24]. Note that

Mohandas Gandhi's Mother was a devout Jain and Jain Monks visited his home

regularly. He spent considerable time under the tutelage of Jain Monks learning

the philosophies of non-violence and doing good always.

[edit] Creation and cosmology

  Main article: Jain Cosmology

Bhaktamara Stotra and 10th couplet in Thirukural[2], a Tamil classic: A

Tirthankara is a shelter from ocean of rebirths.According to Jain beliefs, the

universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. Therefore, it is

shaswat (infinite). It has no beginning or end, but time is cyclical with

progressive and regressive spirituality phases.

Jains divide time into Utsarpinis (Progressive Time Cycle) and Avsarpinis

(Regressive Time Cycle). An Utsarpini and an Avsarpini constitute one Time Cycle

(Kalchakra). Every Utsarpini and Avsarpini is divided into six unequal periods

known as Aras. During the Utsarpini half cycle, humanity develops from its worst

to its best: ethics, progress, happiness, strength, health, and religion each

start the cycle at their worst, before eventually completing the cycle at their

best and starting the process again. During the Avsarpini half-cycle, these

notions deteriorate from the best to the worst. Jains believe we are currently

in the fifth Ara of the Avsarpini phase, with approximately 19,000 years until

the next Ara. After this Avsarpini phase, the Utsarpini phase will begin,

continuing the infinite repetition of the Kalchakra.

Jains believe that at the upswing of each time cycle, people will lose religion

again. All wishes will be granted by wish-granting trees (Kalpavrksa), and

people will be born in sets of twins (Yugalika) with one boy and one girl who

stay together all their lives: a symbol of an integrated human with male and

female characteristics balanced.

Jain philosophy is based upon eternal, universal truths. During the first and

last two Aras, these truths lapse among humanity and then reappear through the

teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached moksa or total knowledge

(Kevala Jnana), during the third and fourth Aras. Traditionally, in our universe

and in our time, Lord Rishabha (ऋषभ) is regarded as the first to realize the

truth. Lord Vardhamana (Mahavira) was the last Tirthankara to attain

enlightenment (599-527 BCE). He was preceded by twenty-three others, making a

total of twenty-four Tirthankaras.

It is important to note that the above description stands true "in our universe

and in our time" for Jains believe there have been infinite sets of 24

Tirthankaras, one for each half of the time cycle, and this will continue in the

future. Hence, Jainism does not trace its origins to Rishabh Deva, the first, or

finish with Mahavira, the twenty-fourth, Tirthankara.

According to Jainism, the Universe consists of infinite amount of Jiva (life

force or souls), and the design resembles a man standing with his arms bent

while resting his hands on his waist. The narrow waist part comprises various

Kshetras, for vicharan (roaming) for humans, animals and plants. Currently we

are in the Bharat Kshetra of Jambu Dweep (dweep means island).

The Deva Loka (Heavens) are at the symbolic 'chest' of Creation, where all Devas

(demi gods) reside. Similarly beneath the 'waist' are the Narka Loka (Hell).

There are seven Narka Lokas, each for a varying degree suffering a jiva has to

go through to face the consequences of its paap karma (sins). From the first to

the seventh Narka, the degree of suffering increases and light reaching it

decreases (with no light in the seventh Narka).

The sidhha kshetra or moksha is situated at the symbolic forehead of the

creation, where all the jivas having attained nirvana reside in a state of

complete peace and eternal happiness. Outside the symbolic figure of this

creation nothing but aloka or akaasha (sky) exists.

            [hide]v • d • e24 Tirthankars of Jainism

            Lord Rishabha • Ajitnath • Sambhavanath • Abhinandannath •

            Sumatinath • Padmaprabha • Suparshvanath • Chandraprabha •

            Pushpadanta • Sheetalnath • Shreyansanath • Vasupujya • Vimalnath •

            Anantnath • Dharmanath • Shantinath • Kunthunath • Aranath •

            Mallinath • Munisuvrata • Naminatha • Neminatha • Parshva • Mahavira

[edit] Jain philosophy

  Main article: Jain Philosophy

Jain philosophy (Sanskrit: Jain darsana; जैन दर्शन) deals extensively with the

problems of metaphysics, reality, cosmology, ontology, epistemology and

divinity. Jainism is essentially a transtheistic religion of ancient India.[25]

It is a continuation of the ancient Śramaṇa tradition which co-existed with the

Vedic tradition since ancient times.[26][27] The distinguishing features of Jain

philosophy are its belief in independent existence of soul and matter, neither

denial nor acceptance of a creative and omnipotent God, an eternal (and hence

uncreated) universe, a strong emphasis on non-violence, on relativity and

multiple facets of truth, and morality and ethics based on liberation of souls.

Jain philosophy explains the rationale of being and existence, the nature of the

Universe and its constituents, the nature of bondage and the means to achieve

liberation.[28] It is described as ascetic because of its strong emphasis on

self-control, austerities and renunciation and called a model of philosophical

liberalism for its insistence that truth is relative and multifaceted and for

its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of rival

philosophies.[29] It has been compared to Western concepts of subjectivism and

moral relativism. Jainism strongly upholds the individual nature of soul and

personal responsibility for one's decisions; and that self-reliance and

individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation. In this matter,

it is similar to individualism and Objectivism.

In Jainism, truth or reality is perceived differently depending on different

points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth.[30][31]

Jain doctrine states that an object has infinite modes of existence and

qualities and, as such, cannot be completely perceived in all its aspects and

manifestations, due to inherent human limitations. Only Kevalins - the

omniscient beings - can totally comprehend objects and that others can knowing

only a part. Consequently, no one view can represent the absolute truth. In the

process, the Jains have their doctrines of relativity used for logic and

reasoning –

  Anekāntavāda - literally, "Non-one-endedness", "Nonsingular Conclusivity", the

  idea that no one perspective holds the complete truth;

  Syādvāda – the theory of conditioned predication and;

  Nayavāda – The theory of partial standpoints.

These philosophical concepts contributed immensely to Indian philosophy,

especially in skepticism and relativity.[32]

[edit] Karma theory

  Main article: Karma in Jainism

Karma in Jainism conveys a totally different meaning than commonly understood in

the Hindu philosophy and western civilization.[33] It is not the so called

inaccessible force that controls the fate of living beings in inexplicable ways.

It does not mean "deed", "work", nor invisible, mystical force (adrsta), but a

complex of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses, which interacts with

the soul, causing great changes. Karma, then, is something material

(karmapaudgalam), which produces certain conditions, like a medical pill has

many effects.[34] According to Robert Zydendos, karma in Jainism is a system of

laws, but natural rather than moral laws. In Jainism, actions that carry moral

significance are considered to cause consequences in just the same way as

physical actions that do not carry any moral significance. When one holds an

apple in one's hand and then let go of the apple, the apple will fall: this is

only natural. There is no judge, and no moral judgment involved, since this is a

mechanical consequence of the physical action.[35]

[edit] Customs and practices

The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa, meaning

non-violence. The word in the middle is "Ahimsa." The wheel represents the

dharmacakra, to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of

truth.Jain monks and nuns practice strict asceticism and strive to make their

current birth their last, thus ending their cycle of transmigration. The laity,

who pursue less rigorous practices, strive to attain rational perception and to

do as much good as possible and get closer to the goal of attaining freedom from

the cycle of transmigration. Following strict ethics, the laity usually choose

professions that revere and protect life and totally avoid violent livelihoods.

Jains practice Samayika, which is a Sanskrit word meaning equanimity and derived

from samaya (the soul). The goal of samayika is to attain equanimity. Samayika

is begun by achieving a balance in time. If this current moment is defined as a

moving line between the past and the future, samayika happens by being fully

aware, alert and conscious in that moving time line when one experiences atma,

one's true nature, common to all life forms. Samayika is especially significant

during Paryushana, a special period during the monsoon, and is practiced during

the Samvatsari Pratikramana ritual.

Jains believe that Devas (demi-gods or celestial beings) cannot help jiva to

obtain liberation, which must be achieved by individuals through their own

efforts. In fact, Devas themselves cannot achieve liberation until they

reincarnate as humans and undertake the difficult act of removing karma. Their

efforts to attain the exalted state of Siddha, the permanent liberation of jiva

from all involvement in worldly existence, must be their own.

The strict Jain ethical code for both laity and monks/nuns is:

  Ahimsa (Non-violence)

  Satya (truth)

  Achaurya or Asteya (non-stealing)

  Brahmacharya (Celibacy)

  Aparigraha (Non-attachment to temporal possessions)

Nonviolence includes vegetarianism. Jains are expected to be non-violent in

thought, word, and deed, both toward humans and toward all other living beings,

including their own selves. Jain monks and nuns walk barefoot and sweep the

ground in front of them to avoid killing insects or other tiny beings. Even

though all life is considered sacred by the Jains, human life is deemed the

highest form of life. For this reason, it is considered vital never to harm or

upset any person.

For laypersons, brahmacharya means either confining sex to marriage or complete

celibacy. For monks and nuns, it means complete celibacy.

While performing holy deeds, Svetambara Jains wear cloths, muhapatti, over their

mouths and noses to avoid saliva falling on texts or revered images. It is

incorrect to say that this is to avoid accidentally inhaling insects. Many

healthy concepts are entwined. For example, Jains drink only boiled water. In

ancient times, a person might get ill by drinking unboiled water, which could

prevent equanimity, and illness may engender intolerance.

True spirituality, according to enlightened Jains, starts when one attains

Samyak darshana, or true perception. Such souls are on the path to moksha,

striving to remain in the nature of the soul. This is characterized by knowing

and observing only all worldly affairs, without raag (attachment) and dwesh

(repulsion), a state of pure knowledge and bliss. Attachment to worldly life

collects new karmas, and traps one in birth, death, and suffering. Worldly life

has a dual nature (for example, love and hate, suffering and pleasure, etc.),

for the perception of one state cannot exist without the contrasting perception

of the other.

Jain Dharma shares some beliefs with Hinduism. Both believe in karma and

reincarnation. However, the Jain version of the Ramayana and Mahabharata is

different from Hindu beliefs, for example. Generally, Hindus believe that Rama

was a reincarnation of God, whereas Jains believe he attained moksha

(liberation) because they are free from any belief in a creator god.

Along with the Five Vows, Jains avoid harboring ill will and practice

forgiveness. They believe that atma (soul) can lead one to becoming parmatma

(liberated soul) and this must come from one's inner self. Jains refrain from

all violence (Ahimsa) and recommend that sinful activities be avoided.

Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced (particularly through the guidance of

Shrimad Rajchandra) by Jain tenets such as peaceful, protective living and

honesty, and made them an integral part of his own philosophy.[36] Jainism has a

distinct idea underlying Tirthankar worship. The physical form is not worshiped,

but their Gunas (virtues, qualities) are praised. Tirthankaras remain

role-models, and sects such as the Sthanakavasi stringently reject statue

worship.

[edit] Jain fasting

  Main article: Fasting in Jainism

Fasting is a tool for doing Tapa and to attach to your inner-being. It is a part

of Jain festivals. It is three types based on the level of austerity; Uttam,

Madhyam and Jaghanya; first being the most stringent:

1. Uttam: Renounce all worldly things including food & water on the day of

fasting and eat only once on the eve & next day of fasting.

2. Madhyam: Food & water is not taken on the day of fast.

3. Jaghanya: Eat only once on the day.

During fasting a person imbibe himself in religious activities (worshiping,

serving the saints & be in their proximity, reading scriptures, Tapa, and donate

to the right candidates - Supatra).

Most Jains fast at special times, during festivals (known as Parva. Paryushana

and Ashthanhika are the main Parvas which occurs 3 times in a year), and on holy

days (eighth & fourteen days of the moon cycle).Paryushana is the most prominent

festival, lasting eight days for Svetambara Jains and ten days for Digambars,

during the monsoon. The monsoon is considered the best time of fasting due to

lenient weather. However, a Jain may fast at any time, especially if s/he feels

some error has been committed. Variations in fasts encourage Jains to do

whatever they can to maintain self control.

Some Jains revere a special practice. When a person is aware of approaching

death, and feels that s/he has completed all duties, s/he willingly ceases to

eat or drink gradually. This form of dying is called Santhara / Samaadhi. It can

be as long as 12 years with gradual reduction in food intake. Considered

extremely spiritual and creditable, with all awareness of the transitory nature

of human experience, it has recently led to a controversy. In Rajasthan, a

lawyer petitioned the High Court of Rajasthan to declare santhara illegal. Jains

see santhara as spiritual detachment, a declaration that a person has finished

with this world and now chooses to leave.

[edit] Jain worship and rituals

  Main article: Jain rituals and festivals

Every day most Jains bow and say their universal prayer, the "Namokara Mantra",

aka the Navkar Mantra, Parmesthi Mantra, Panch Namaskar Mantra, Anadhi Nidhan

Mantra. Jains have built temples, or Basadi or Derasar, where images of

tirthankaras are revered. Rituals may be elaborate because symbolic objects are

offered and Tirthankaras praised in song. But some sects refuse to enter temples

or revere images. All Jains accept that images of Tirthankaras are merely

symbolic reminders of their paths to attain moksha. Jains are clear that the

Jinas reside in moksha and are completely detached from the world.

Jain rituals include:

  Pancakalyanaka Pratishtha

  Pratikramana

  Samayika

  Guru Vandana, Chaitya Vandana, and other sutras to honor ascetics.

[edit] Jain symbolism

The fylfot (swastika) is among the holiest of Jain symbols. Worshippers use rice

grains to create a fylfot around the temple altar.The holiest symbol is a simple

swastika. Another important symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of a hand,

symbolizing Ahimsa.

Other major Jain symbols include:

  24 Lanchhanas (symbols) of the Tirthankaras

  Triratna and Shrivatsa symbols

  A Tirthankar's or Chakravarti's mother dreams

  Dharmacakra and Siddha-chakra

  Eight auspicious symbols (The Asta Mangalas). Their names are (in series of

  pictures)

  Svastika -Signifies peace and well-being

  Shrivatsa -A mark manifested on the centre of the Jina's chest, signifying a

  pure soul.

  Nandyavartya -Large svastika with nine corners

  Vardha­manaka -A shallow earthen dish used for lamps, suggests an increase in

  wealth, fame and merit due to a Jina's grace.

  Bhadrasana -Throne, considered auspicious because it is sanctified by the

  blessed Jina's feet.

  Kalasha -Pot filled with pure water signifying wisdom and completeness

  Minayugala -A fish couple. It signifies Cupid's banners coming to worship the

  Jina after defeating the God of Love

  Darpana -The mirror reflects one's true self because of its clarity

[edit] Jain contributions to Indian culture

A Jain temple in Kochi, Kerala, India.While Jains represent less than 1% of the

Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India are

considerable. Jainism had a major influence in developing a system of philosophy

and ethics that had a major impact on all aspects of Indian culture in all ages.

Scholarly research and evidences have shown that philosophical concepts

considered typically Indian – Karma, Ahimsa, Moksa, reincarnation and like -

either originate in the sramana school of thought or were propagated and

developed by Jaina teachers.[37]

Jains have also wielded great influence on the culture and language of Karnatak,

Southern India and Gujarat most significantly. The earliest known Gujarati text,

Bharat-Bahubali Ras, was written by a Jain monk. Some important people in

Gujarat's Jain history were Acharya Hemacandra Suri and his pupil, the Calukya

ruler Kumarapala.

Jains are among the wealthiest Indians. They run numerous schools, colleges and

hospitals and are important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple

architects in Gujarat. Jains have greatly influenced Gujarati cuisine. Gujarat

is predominantly vegetarian (see Jain vegetarianism), and its food is mild as

onions and garlic are omitted.

Jains encourage their monks to do research and obtain higher education. Jain

monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research

monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups and parallels Christian

clergy. The 2001 census states that Jains are India's most literate community

and that India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer are preserved by Jain

institutions.

[edit] Jain literature

Jains have contributed to India's classical and popular literature. For example,

almost all early Kannada literature and Tamil literature was written by Jains.

  Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain

  scholars. The first autobiography in Hindi, [Ardha-Kathanaka] was written by a

  Jain, Banarasidasa, an ardent follower of Acarya Kundakunda who lived in Agra.

  Several Tamil classics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as

  the core subject.

  Practically all the known texts in the Apabhramsha language are Jain works.

The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit (Agamas,

Agama-Tulya, Siddhanta texts, etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit

(Tatvartha Sutra, Puranas, Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematics, Nighantus etc).

"Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha" written by Acharya Rajendrasuri, is only one

available Jain encyclopedia or Jain dictionary to understand the Jain Prakrit,

Sanskrit, and Ardha-Magadhi and other Jain languages, words, their use and

references with in oldest Jain literature. Later Jain literature was written in

Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, and grammars), Hindi (Chhahadhala, Mokshamarga

Prakashaka, and others), Tamil (Jivakacintamani, Kural, and others), and Kannada

(Vaddaradhane and various other texts). Jain versions of Ramayana and

Mahabharata are found in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsha and Kannada.

[edit] Jain monks and nuns (Sadhu or Muni Maharaj)

  Main article: Jain Monks and Nuns

Palitana TirthaIn India there are thousands of Jain Monks, in categories like

Acharya, Upadhyaya and Muni. Trainee ascetics are known as Ailaka and Ksullaka

in the Digambar tradition.

There are two categories of ascetics, Sadhu (monk) and Sadhvi (nun). They

practice the five Mahavratas, three Guptis and five Samitis:

Five Mahavratas

  अहिंसा Ahimsa: Non-violence in thought, word and deed

  सत्य Satya: Truth which is (hita) beneficial, (mita) succinct and (priya)

  pleasing

  अचौर्य Acaurya: Not accepting anything that has not been given to them by the

  owner

  ब्रह्मचर्य Brahmacarya: Absolute purity of mind and body

  अपरिग्रह Aparigraha: Non-attachment to non-self objects

Three Guptis

  मनगुप्ती Managupti: Control of the mind

  वचनगुप्ती Vacanagupti: Control of speech

  कायगुप्ती Kayagupti: Control of body

Five Samitis

  ईर्या समिति Irya Samiti: Carefulness while walking

  भाषा समिति Bhasha Samiti: Carefulness while communicating

  एषणा समिति Eshana Samiti: Carefulness while eating

  आदान निक्षेपण समिति Adana Nikshepana Samiti: Carefulness while handling their

  fly-whisks, water gourds, etc.

  प्रतिष्ठापना समिति Pratishthapana Samiti: Carefulness while disposing of

  bodily waste matter

Male Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and are nude. They practise

non-attachment to the body and hence, wear no clothes. Shvetambara monks and

nuns wear white clothes. Shvetambaras believe that monks and nuns may wear

simple un-stitched white clothes as long as they are not attached to them. Jain

monks and nuns travel on foot. They do not use mechanical transport.

Digambar followers takes upto eleven Pratimaye (oath). Monks take all eleven

oaths. They eat only once a day. The Male Digambar monk (Maharajji) eat standing

at one place in their palms without using any utensil.

Find Details of Chaturmas or VarshaYog Information for 2008

[edit] Holidays

  Paryushan Parva, 10/8 (Digambar/SVetambar) day fasts, and for observe, 10/8

  important principles.

  Mahavir Janma Kalyanak,[38] Lord Mahavir's birth, it is popularly known as

  Mahavir Jayanti but the term 'jayanti' is inappropriate for a Tirthankar, as

  this term is used for mortals.

  Kshamavaani, The day for asking everyone's forgiveness.

  Diwali, the nirvana day of Lord Mahavira

[edit] Jainism and other religions

  See also: Buddhism and Jainism , Jainism and Islam , and Jainism and Sikhism

Jains are not a part of the Vedic Religion (Hinduism).[39][40][41] Ancient India

had two philosophical streams of thought: The Shramana philosophical schools,

represented by Jainism , and the Brahmana/Vedic/Puranic schools represented by

Vedanta, Vaishnava and other movements. Both streams are subsets of the Dharmic

family of faith and have existed side by side for many thousands of years,

influencing each other.[42]

The Hindu scholar, Lokmanya Tilak credited Jainism with influencing Hinduism and

thus leading to the cessation of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals. Bal

Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as the originator of Ahimsa and wrote in a

letter printed in Bombay Samachar, Mumbai:10 Dec, 1904: "In ancient times,

innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Evidence in support of this is

found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghaduta. Swami

Vivekananda[43] also credited Jainism as influencing force behind the Indian

culture.

"What could have saved Indian society from the ponderous burden of omnifarious

ritualistic ceremonialism, with its animal and other sacrifices, which all but

crushed the very life of it, except the Jain revolution which took its strong

stand exclusively on chaste morals and philosophical truths? Jains were the

first great ascetics. "Don't injure any, do good to all that you can and that is

all the morality and ethics, and that is all the work there is, and the rest is

all nonsense... Throw it away." And then they went to work and elaborated this

one principle, and it is a most wonderful ideal: how all that we call ethics

they simply bring out from one great principle of non-injury and doing good."

  Relationship between Jainism and Hinduism - According to the Encyclopædia

  Britannica Article on Hinduism,"...With Jainism which always remained an

  Indian religion, Hinduism has so much in common, especially in social

  institutions and ritual life, that nowadays Hindus tend to consider it a Hindu

  sect. Many Jains also are inclined to fraternization..."[44]

  Independent Religion - From the Encyclopædia Britannica Article on Jainism:

  "...Along with Hinduism and Buddhism, it is one of the three most ancient

  Indian religious traditions still in existence. ...While often employing

  concepts shared with Hinduism and Buddhism, the result of a common cultural

  and linguistic background, the Jain tradition must be regarded as an

  independent phenomenon. It is an integral part of South Asian religious belief

  and practice, but it is not a Hindu sect or Buddhist heresy, as earlier

  scholars believed."[45] The author Koenraad Elst in his book, Who is a Hindu?,

  summarises on the similaries between Jains and the mainstream Hindu society.

[edit] Languages used in Jain literature

Jain literature exists in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil, Apabhramsha, Rajasthani,

Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, Kutchi, Kannada, Tulu, Telugu, Dhundhari (Old

Marwari), English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and Russian.

[edit] Constitutional status of Jainism in India

  Main article: Legal Status of Jainism as a Distinct Religion

In 2005 the Supreme Court of India in a judgment stated that Sikhs, Jains and

Buddhists are sub-sects or 'special faiths' of Hinduism, and are governed under

the ambit of Hindu laws.[46] In the same year however, it declined to issue a

writ of Mandamus towards granting Jains the status of a religious minority

throughout India. The Court noted that Jains have been declared a minority in 5

states already, and left it to the rest of the States to decide on the minority

status of Jain religion.[47]

In 2006 the Supreme Court in a judgment pertaining to a state, opined that "Jain

Religion is indisputably not a part of the Hindu Religion". (para 25, Committee

of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, U.P. v. Sachiv,

U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J.,

Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21.08.2006, Supreme Court of India)

[2]

[edit] See also

      Jainism portal

  Jain community

  Jain Cosmology

  Jain flag

  Statistics of Jainism

  Jain Meditation

  List of Jain temples

  List of Important Jains in History

[edit] Notes

  ^ Indian Census

  ^ Estimates for the population of Jains differ from just over four million to

  twelve million due to difficulties of Jain identity, with Jains in some areas

  counted as a Hindu sect. Many Jains do not return Jainism as their religion on

  census forms for various reasons such as certain Jain castes considering

  themselves both Hindu and Jain. Following a major advertising

  campaign[citation needed] urging Jains to register as such, the 1981 Census of

  India returned 3.19 million Jains. This was estimated at the time to be at

  least half the true number. There are an estimated 25,000 Jains in Europe

  (mostly in England), 21,000 in Africa, 20,000 plus in North America and 5,000

  in the rest of Asia.

  ^ Jains’ contribution to exchequer “astounding”, Online Edition, The Hindu

  (August 20, 2007). Retrieved on August 29, 2008.

  ^ Census of India 2001

  ^ The Jain Knowledge Warehouses: Traditional Libraries in India, John E. Cort,

  Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 115, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1995),

  pp. 77–87

  ^ Tobias, Michael (1991). Life Force. The World of Jainism. Berkeley,

  California: Asian manush Press, 6-7, 15. 

  ^ . . .from Hindi Jaina, from Skt. jinah "saint," lit. "overcomer," from base

  ji "to conquer," related to jayah "victory." etymonline.com entry

  ^ Hindi jaina, from Sanskrit jaina-, relating to the saints, from jinaḥ,

  saint, victor, from jayati, he conquers. dictionary.com entry

  ^ a b Jarl Charpentier: The History of the Jains, in: The Cambridge History of

  India, vol. 1, Cambridge 1922, p. 153; A.M. Ghatage: Jainism, in: The Age of

  Imperial Unity, ed. R.C. Majumdar/A.D. Pusalkar, Bombay 1951, p. 411-412;

  Shantaram Bhalchandra Deo: History of Jaina Monachism, Poona 1956, p. 59-60.

  ^ a b Mehta, T.U. "Path of Arhat - A Religious Democracy" (DOC). Pujya

  Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha. Retrieved on 2008-03-11.

  ^ Singh, Ramjee Dr. Jaina Perspective in Philosophy and Religion, Faridabad,

  Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha, 1993.

  ^ Tattvartha Sutra

  ^ Dulichand Jain (1998) Thus Spake Lord Mahavir, Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai,

  ISBN 81-7120-825-8 Page 69

  ^ Prof. S.A.Jain. Reality - English Translation of Sarvarthasiddhi by Srimat

  Pujyapadacharya, 2nd Edition, Chapter 7, Page 195.

  ^ "Parshvanatha". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2007). Retrieved on 2007-10-22. 

  ^ Bowker, John (2000). "Parsva". The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World

  Religions. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Retrieved on

  2007-10-22. 

  ^ Please refer to "Jaya Gommatesh" for more details on this topic.{Patil, Bal.

  "Jaya Gommatesha". Foreword by Prof. Dr. Colette Caillat.

  ^ Basic Faith Group Information

  ^ Anne Vallely; Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain

  Ascetic Community (page 15)

  ^ Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women.

  Padmanabh S. Jaini University of California Press, 1991

  ^ South India Handbook: The Travel Guide By Robert Bradnock, 2000 Footprint

  Travel Guides, p. 543, Vegetarianism: A History By Colin Spencer, 2002

  Thunder's Mouth Press, p. 342

  ^ "Viren, Jain" (PDF). RE Today. Retrieved on 2007-06-14.

  ^ "At the Root of Root Vegetables" (PDF). Anekant Education Foundation.

  Retrieved on 2007-06-14.

  ^ Content Pages of the Encyclopedia of Religion and Social Science

  ^ Zimmer (1969), p.182

  ^ Sangave, Vilas (2001) p. 14

  ^ Harry Oldmeadow (2007)p. 141

  ^ Warren, Herbert (2001)

  ^ Mohanty, Jitendranath (2000)

  ^ Dundas (2002)

  ^ Koller, John M. (July, 2000).

  ^ McEvilley, Thomas (2002) p335

  ^ Kuhn, Hermann (2001). In: Karma, The Mechanism : Create Your Own Fate.

  Nevada: Crosswind Publishing.

  ^ Dr. H. V. Glasenapp, Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy, Pg 2

  ^ Zydenbos (2006)

  ^ http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/jainism.htm].

  ^ Zydenbos, Robert J. (2006)

  ^ JainNet : Mahaveer Janma Kalyanak

  ^ J. L. Jaini, (1916) Jaina Law, Bhadrabahu Samhita, (Text with translation )

  Arrah, Central jaina publishing House) " As to Jains being Hindu dissenters,

  and, therefore governable by Hindu law, we are not told this date of secession

  [...] Jainism certainly has a longer history than is consistent with its being

  a creed of dissenters from Hinduism." P.12-13

  ^ P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass,

  Delhi, p. 169 "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell

  within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions,

  moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character

  of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism"

  ^ Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass

  Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 “There is no evidence to show that Jainism and

  Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are

  parallel to native religions of India and have contributed much to the growth

  of even classical Hinduism of the present times.” Page 18

  ^ Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern

  West, World Wisdom, Inc ISBN 1933316225 "What is historically known is that

  there was a tradition along with vedic Hinduism known as sramana dharma.

  Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain traditions,

  which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual

  sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins". Page 141

  ^ Dulichand Jain (1998) Thus Spake Lord Mahavir, Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai,

  ISBN 81-7120-825-8 Page 15

  ^ [1]

  ^ Jainism - Britannica Online Encyclopedia

  ^ Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India,

  Dec. 2005.

  ^ http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098

[edit] External links

  JainHeritageCentres.com, A portal giving information about Jain heritage and

  pilgrim sites across the globe.

  Chaturmas2008, Find complete information about chaturmas (Varshayog) 2008

  Jinvani.com, A complete portal of Jainism

  eJainDharam.com, Worlds Biggest Information Portal Under Development.

  Click Here, Unique web journal of Jain dharma, IN Chronological Order!

  jainuniversity.org, Jain Education and Information

  T.U.Mehta. "Path of Arhat - A Religious Democracy" (DOC). Retrieved on

  2008-03-11.

  Census of India 2001. Office of the Registrar General, India.

  [http://censusindia.net Links to the Census on India

  AtmaDharma.com, A library of over 200 downloadable Jain books in many

  languages. Lots of Audio (Songs, Lectures) and Video.

  Website for Jainism in India

  Jainojago.com

  jaina.org, Federation of Jain Associations in North America

  jainlibrary.org, A complete list of texts on Jainism, sponsored by the JAINA

  Education Commitee

  mangalayatan.com, Various pics from Aligarh

  jainpushp.org, Kanji Swami's follower's portal from Devlali.

  atma-darshan.org

  Jain and Indology group

  Jain-class group

  Jain Perceptions blog

  BBC page on Jainism

  Yorkshire Jain Foundation

  Yahoo Group - Jain Association International

  "Jainism - objects, art and history". Asia. Victoria and Albert Museum.

  Retrieved on 2007-12-06.

[edit] Further reading

  Alsdorf, Ludwig. Jaina Studies: Their Present State and Future Tasks. Eng. tr.

  Bal Patil. Edited by Willem Bollée. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series

  Volume 1. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.

  Amiel,Pierre. Les Jaïns aujourd'hui dans le monde Ed. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2003

  translated in English and printed under the title "Jains today in the world"

  by Parshwanath Vidyapeeth, Varanasi,India, 2008

  Balbir, Nalini (Ed.) Catalogue of the Jain Manuscripts of the British Library.

  Set of 3 books. London: Institute of Jainology, 2006.

  Bollée, Willem. The Story of Paesi Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series

  Volume 2. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2005.

  Bollée, Willem. Vyavahara Bhasya Pithika. Prakrit text with English

  translation, annotations and exhaustive Index by Willem Bollée. Pandit

  Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 4. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.

  Caillat, Colette "La cosmologie jaïna" Ed. du Chêne, Paris 1981.

  Chand, Bool. "Mahavira-Le Grand héros des Jaïns" Maisonneuve et Larose, Paris

  1998.

  Hynson, Colin. Discover Jainism. Ed. Mehool Sanghrajka. London: Institute of

  Jainology, 2007.

  Jain, DuliChand. English version of "Baghawan Mahavir ki Vani" - Thus Spake

  Lord Mahavir. Chennai, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1998.

  Jain, Duli Chandra (Ed.) Studies in Jainism. Set of 3 books. New York: Jain

  Stucy Circle, 2004.

  Jalaj, Jaykumar. The Basic Thought of Bhagavan Mahavir. Ed. Elinor Velázquez.

  (5th edition) Jaipur: Prakrit Bharati Academy, 2007.

  Joindu. Paramatmaprakasha. Apabhramsha text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj.

  Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 9. Mumbai: Hindi

  Granth Karyalay, 2007.

  Joindu. Yogasara. Apabhramsha text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed.

  Satyanarayana Hegde. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 10. Mumbai:

  Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2008.

  Kapashi, Vinod. Nava Smarana: Nine Sacred Recitations of Jainism. Ed. Signe

  Kirde. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2007.

  Kundakunda. Atthapahuda Prakrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed.

  Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 6. Mumbai: Hindi

  Granth Karyalay, 2006.

  Mardia, K.V. The Scientific Foundations of Jainism. Motilal Banarsidass, New

  Delhi, latest edition 2007. ISBN 81-208-0659-x (Jain Dharma ki Vigyanik

  Adharshila. Parsvanath Vidhyapitha, Varanasi. 2004. ISBN 81-86715-71-1).

  Mehta, T.U. Path of Arhat - A Religious Democracy, Volume 63, Faridabad: Pujya

  Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha, 1993.

  Patil, Bal. Jaya Gommatesha. Foreword by Colette Caillat. Mumbai: Hindi Granth

  Karyalay, 2006.

  Prabhacandra. Tattvarthasutra. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj.

  Preface by Nalini Balbir. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research

  Series Volume 7. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2008.

  Pujyapada. Samadhitantra. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj.

  Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 5. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay,

  2006.

  Pujyapada. Istopadesha. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed.

  Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 14. Mumbai: Hindi

  Granth Karyalay, 2007.

  Rankin, Aidan. 'The Jain Path: Ancient Wisdom for the West.'

  Winchester/Washington DC: O Books, 2006.

  Reymond Jean-Pierre "L'Inde des Jaïns" Ed. Atlas 1991.

  Roy, Ashim Kumar. A history of the Jains, New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishing

  House, 1984.

  Samantabhadra. Ratnakaranda Sravakacara. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by

  Jaykumar Jalaj. Preface by Paul Dundas. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series

  Volume 3. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.

  Sangave Vilas. 'Le Jaïnisme-Philosophie et Religion de l'Inde" Editions

  Trédaniel Paris 1999.

  Todarmal. Moksamarga Prakashaka. Jaipur: Todarmal Smarak Trust, 1992.

  Vijayashri. Sachitra Pacchis Bol. Agra: Mahasati Kaushalya Devi Prakashan

  Trust, 2005.

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